目 录
1毕业论文格式编写说明……………………….……………………………………1
2封面格式要求.………………………………………………………………………2
3致谢格式要求.…………………………………..……………..……………………3
4中文摘要格式要求..……………….………………….……….……………………4
5英文摘要格式要求..……………….………………….……….……………………5
6目录格式要求……………………………………………………………………….6
7正文及一级标题格式要求………………………………………………………….8
8二级标题及引文格式要求……..……………………………………………………9
9三级标题及引文标注格式要求……………………………………………………11
10四级标题格式要求……………………………………………………..…………13
11参考文献格式要求……………………………………………………………….15
12论文装订顺序…………………………………………………………………….17
毕业论文格式编写说明
基本格式
字数：3000―5000字左右，论文用英语撰写。
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学位论文的构成包括前置部分、主体部分、参考文献和附录等四个部分，按先后顺序排列如下：
前置部分：封面：标题（中英文）、作者、专业、指导教师姓名和职称、分院和日期等。
致谢（英文）：（Acknowledgements）
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引文： （格式见9-11页）
注释：（主要采用夹注的形式，全文至少有10个以上夹注）
结论：字数要求：400字左右。
参考文献：外国语学院参考文献至少要求10条。
附录：（必要时）
本科毕业论文（设计）
论隐喻的运作机制
On the Mechanism of Metaphor
作 者
| 张三
|
专 业
| 英语（商务）
|
指导教师
| 李四 副教授
|
分 院
| 外国语学院二OO九年五月
|
Acknowledgements have eternal gratitude to…, my tutor, for his inestimable help and valuable instruction, and to Professor …, for his insightful lectures, which inspire me to compose this dissertation.
I am greatly indebted to Professor … for his allowing me to have access to his books pertinent to this dissertation.
I also thank those who help me in course of the writing and whose names I can’t list here one by one.
论隐喻的运作机制
摘要：隐喻研究归根到底是隐喻机制的研究，它是隐喻研究的核心。两千多年来，隐喻一直被仅仅看作一种修辞手段，一种语言的陪衬，被看作是两种不同事物事先存在的相似性的比较或一个词对另一词的替代，进而形成对隐喻阐述的比较论和替代论。现代学者通过大量研究表明，隐喻不仅仅是一种修辞手段，更重要的是，它是人类的主要认知方式。隐喻这一认知方式，给人们一种新的视角，创造一种相似。因此，现代学者着重于阐述相似是如何被创造出来的。在众多的隐喻理论中，影响较大的有布莱克和莱科夫的隐喻理论。 (大约200字左右)
（注意：应从论文中选择3-6个关键词）
On the Mechanism of Metaphor
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Abstract:The mechanism of metaphor is actually the nucleus of the study of metaphor. For more than two thousand years, metaphor was viewed as a device of rhetoric, an attachment to language. In accordance with this perspective, metaphor was a comparison between two things that do not belong to the same category or was regarded as one word used to substitute another because there were preexisting similarities between them. As a result of this perspective, two theories took shape: one was the Comparison Theory, the other was the Theory of Substitution. But modern scholars discard the perspective, holding that metaphor is not only a device of rhetoric, to be more important, it is a leading way for human beings to know this world, a way of thinking.
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Key words:metaphor; collocation; terms
（注意：1.英文摘要的内容和关键词应与中文摘要相对应；2. 关键词除专有名词外，其他单词首字母不大写）
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………….i
Abstract in Chinese……………………………………………….……….………..ii
Abstract in English……………………………………………….……….………..iii
Introduction………………………………………………………………………..1
A Historical Retrospection of Metaphor…………………………………………2
2.1 Aristotelian School: Metaphor—A Device of Rhetoric……………..……….2
2.2 The Platonic School—Language is Metaphorical……………….……………. 5
2.3 The Study of Metaphor from the 20thCentury to the Present……………….…..6
III. On Similarity……………………………………………………………………7
3.1 Similarity: A Fundamental Criterion for the Classification of Metaphor………..7
3.2 Similarity and Culture………………………………………………………….9
3.3 Similarity and Category………………………….……………………………10
3.4 The Relationship Between Similarity and Knowledge……………………….13
On the Mechanism of Metaphor…………………………….…………………15
4.1 Black’s Interaction Theory………………………………………………………..15
4.1.1 Introduction to the Interaction Theory…………………………… ………15
4.1.2 Some Defects of the Interaction Theory…………………………………16
4.2 Lakoffian Conceptual Metaphor Theory………………………………………19
4.2.1 The Philosophical Basis of Lakoffian Theory……………………………19
4.2.2 Lakoffian Theory on the Mechanism of Metaphor………………………21
4.2.3 The Deficiencies of Lakoffian Theory in Expounding the Creation of Similarity…………………. ………………………………………………26
4.3 Conceptual Integration Theory……………………………………………….29
4.3.1 An Introduction to the Conceptual Integration Theory…………………….29
4.3.1.1 Four Mental Spaces……………….………………………..………..29
4.3.1.2 Three Processes of BT………………..……………..……………..33
4.3.1.3 Optimality Principles of BT………….…………………………….34
4.3.2 The Advantages of BT in Solving the Paradox of the Two Former Theories……………………………………………………………………34
4.3.2.1 The Generic Mental Space…………………………….……………34
4.3.2.2 The Blending Space and Emergent Structure……..…………..……35
4.3.2.3 The Other Advantages of BT………………..…………..…………40
Conclusion………………………………………………….……………………42
References………………………………………………..………………………45
On the Mechanism of Metaphor
By Zhang San
Introduction
The study of metaphor has long been with us and the focus of the study is the mechanism of metaphor. It is the most significant and indispensable part of the study. For more than two thousand years, the study is carried on mainly from the perspective of rhetoric, viewing metaphor as a device of rhetoric, an embellishment of language. The representative of the theories in this long period is Aristotle’s Comparison Theory and Quintilian’s Theory of Substitution. Because metaphor is not only a rhetorical phenomenon, but also one of cognition, the interpretation force of these theories is very limited. In 1936, I.A. Richards put forward Interaction Theory. Later Max Black made an elaboration of the work of his. Interaction Theory claims that metaphor is a cognitively irreducible phenomenon that works not at the level of word combination, but much deeper, arising out of the interaction between the conceptual structures underlying the words. But the ones who really turn the study of metaphor to a new page are George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. The mark of this change is the publication of the book namedMetaphors We Live By. The theory of Lakoff and Johnson’s is Conceptual Metaphor Theory. As these scholars regard metaphor as the creation of similarity, their theories concentrate on how the similarity is created and how the new meaning is produced though their interpretations are not perfect. Recently, another theory appeared—Conceptual Integration Theory or Blending Theory. Comparatively speaking, it is more convincing on the mechanism of metaphor than the other two.(以下省略，此部分字数最少不少于300字)
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A Historical Retrospection of Metaphor
2.1 Aristotelian School: Metaphor–A Device of Rhetoric
Andrew Ortony, one of the most influential writers on metaphor, has pointed out, and there are few who would disagree with him, that it is still the case that “Any serious study of metaphor is almost obliged to start with the works of Aristotle” (Ortony，3).
InPoetics,Aristotle expounds the essence, function and the way of explanation of metaphor as three nuclei. He defines metaphor as “the application of an alien name by transference either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy, that is, proportion”(Aristotle，71). Then he gives four kinds of metaphor:
Since ‘lying at anchor’ is a species of the genus ‘lying’, one can say ‘there lies my ship’ (genus-to-species metaphor), since ‘ten thousand’ is a species of a ‘large number’, one can say verily ten thousand noble deeds hath Odysseus wrought (species-to-genus metaphor). Since ‘to draw away’ and ‘to cleave’ are each a species of the genus ‘taking away’, one can say with blade of bronze drew away the life (species-to-species metaphor). And since old age is to life as evening to the day, one can say that old age is the evening of life (ibid.). (此符号ibid.意为同上，引文出处与上相同。本例为整段引用，即block quotation， 前后空五号字一行 )All metaphors, Aristotle believes, fall into at least one of these four categories, although analogy metaphors are the most pleasing. Aristotle also holds that metaphor can make the prosaic style charming, and stresses that it can only be confined to poetry (ibid. 72). This perspective leads to the later theorists making distinction between poetic language and everyday language. Especially in Chapter 21 and 22 ofPoetics, Aristotle states that every word “is either current, or strange, or metaphor, or ornamental, or newly coined, or lengthened, or contracted, or altered”(ibid.70). It is obvious that Aristotle classifies metaphors as lying outside normal language use. They are deviant or aberrant forms of discourse. He also holds that metaphor has no cognitive value and is merely an embellishment of language (Kittay，1). Also in this chapter ofPoetics, he elaborates how metaphors are unusual and discusses the relationship between metaphor and genius, viewing metaphor as a talent of epic poets and tragedians:
The greatest thing by far is to have a command of metaphor. This alone can not be imported by another; it is the mark of genius—for to make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances ( Aristotle 72).
As Hawks writes about Aristotle’s account of metaphor:It is abundantly clear that, as an entity in itself, metaphor is regarded as a decorative addition to language, to be used in specific ways, and at specific times and places (ibid. 8-9).In Rhetoric, Aristotle says that the best metaphors are those that achieve the effect of bringing things vividly before the eyes of the audience. He argues that this effect is “produced by words which refer to things in action”( ibid. 92-93). “The best image involves a metaphor”(ibid. 96). From the above statements, we know that Aristotle views metaphor as a rhetorical device and an embellishment of language. Finally he establishes his theory on metaphor—Comparison Theory. It is the earliest theory in the history of the study of metaphor. Its main gist is:On the Mechanism of Metaphor
4.1 Black’s Interaction Theory
4.1.1 Introduction to Interaction Theory
Interaction Theory was originated from I. A. Richards’ theory. In his definition he says: “In the simplest formulation, when we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning is a resultant of their interaction”(Richard 89). The most important in this definition is “two active thoughts interact with each other.” He first provided the basic terminology and conceptual framework for discussing metaphor. He argued that metaphor consists of two terms, the tenor, or topic, and the vehicle, and the
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注意：外国语言学院毕业论文主要采用夹注的形式
夹注：“夹注”指引用来自参考文献的观点时在文章内用括号表示出来的注释。夹注主要有两种形式，一是“作者名字+文献发表年份”，如“(Bloomfield, 1933)”；二是“作者名字+文献发表年份+页码”，如“(Bloomfield, 1933：78)”。不作任何改变的引文必须加引号，这种引文必须在夹注中标出具体页码，即采用“作者名字+文献发表年份+页码”的夹注形式，否则就是剽窃；引述别人的观点，虽有文字上的变化（即paraphrase），也必须在夹注中标出具体页码，否则不符合学术规范。注意：夹注中作者与年份之间有逗号并空一格，发表年份与页码之间用冒号(“：”)隔开。例如“(Bloomfield, 1933：78)”。有关英语文献的夹注中名字只列姓。
文中涉及到中国作者有两种情况：1）在参考文献中，如果用英文表述中国作者及著作：Shen, Dan. Stylistics and Translation. Beijing: Peking UP, 1995. 那么在正文中，引用原作者话之后要这样在括号里标注, Professor Shen writes that the standard of faithfulness and accuracy is not only “a principle for translating business contracts, but an attitude in translation” (Shen，191). (引文标注用汉语拼音)；2）在参考文献中，如果用汉语表述中国作者及著作，袁振国.当代教育学[M].北京：教育科学出版社，2002. 那么在正文中，引用原作者话之后要这样在括号里标注, 例如，Educator Yuan states that the Social Educational Model was first proposed by Gardner and his colleagues in early 1970’s and reformulated in 1985 (袁振国，116).（引文标注用汉语方块字)。(此处引文为间接引文，故没有双引号)。
夹注与参考文献的关系是：参考文献的每个条目都应有文内的对应夹注，换言之，有多少个参考文献条目就意味着至少有多少个夹注。夹注的数目可能大于或等于参考文献条目的数目，但不能小于参考文献条目的数目。例如，如果参考文献中列有10个文献条目，那么文中就至少要有10个或10个以上的夹注。
4.3 The Conceptual Integration Theory
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4.3.1 An Introduction to the Conceptual Integration Theory
Conceptual Integration Theory was proposed by Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner……………………………………………………………………
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4.3.1.1 Four Mental Spaces
In BT, the basis unit of cognitive organization is not the domain but the mental spaces, which are a partial and temporary representational structure that speakers construct when thinking or talking about a perceived, imagined, past, present………………………………………………
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Conclusion
The study of metaphor is, in essence, the study of how metaphor works. It is the nucleus of metaphor study. Modern scholars discard the perspective that metaphor is a device of rhetoric, an attachment to language, and claim that metaphor is of cognition and is omnipresent; it is a way of human thinking. Moreover, they hold that metaphor creates similarity instead of comparing two things which are based on the preexisting similarity. Hence, the mechanism of metaphor is to interpret how similarity is created. Black’s theory and Lakoffian theory, due to some defects and deficiencies, are not able to give a clear description of the creation of similarity. They endeavor to expound the appearance of a new structure after a novel metaphor, but they fail to do that and result in “isomorphism”.
The mechanism of metaphor is sophisticated. It is a result of various factors. Interacting, projecting and blending constitute the process. It is obvious that BT, on the basis of the two above-mentioned theories, focuses on solving the problem of the “isomorphism”-structure. To avoid committing the same mistake that all the knowledge, the features mapped from the source domain and the structure (topology) of the target domain are interwoven…….
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（about 400 words）References
[1] Alcock, J. The Evolution of Insect Mating System[M]. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983.
[2] Fromkin, Victoria & Robert Rodman. An Introduction to Language[M].New York: Winston, 1978.
[3] Halliday, M. A. K. An Introduction to Functional Grammar[M]. London: Edward Arnold,1985.
[4] Peter, A. M. Interaction routines as cultural influences upon language acquisition[A]. In Schieffelin, B. B. & E. Ochs (eds).Language Socialization across Cultures[C]. Cambridge: CUP, 1986.
[5] Brown, D. “Women make up half of HIV cases.” 2002, Nov 27.Washington Post,
[6] 陈丽云.阴暗的寓言[D]. 北京：北京大学西语系，1998.
[7] 何自然.批评语言学述评 [J]. 外国语言文学研究，1995(4):18-21.
[8] 刘炳善.莎士比亚新论[C]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，1994.
[9] 盛宁.二十世纪美国文论[M]. 北京：商务印书馆，1980.
[10] 王明亮.优秀外语教师专业素质探究[EB/OL] http://www./cajcd.edu.cn/pub/wml.txt/980810-2.html, 1998-08-16/1998-10-04.
注意：
参考文献条目以[1], [2], [3]……的形式编号；英文姓氏按照开头字母从A到Z的顺序排列（姓在前），中文按开头文字的汉语拼音从A到Z的顺序排列。先英文，再中文。如果文献条目要转行，需采用悬挂缩进格式，空4个字母（2字符）。外国语学院毕业论文参考文献至少要求10条。
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文献类别标号：文献类别标号由大写字母和方括号组成。专著为[M]，论文集为[C]，报纸文章[N]，期刊文章为[J]，博士论文为[D]，硕士论文为[MA]，报告[R]，词典[Z]，网络为[OL]，光盘图书［M/CD］。注意：类别标号与其前的文字之间没有任何标点。
论文装订顺序
论文装订顺序为：封面→致谢→中文摘要→英文摘要→目录→正文→参考文献。
页码起始从Introduction部分开始第１页，直到References 结束（包括References）。
由于页码需要罗马数字和阿拉伯数字进行编号，建议分为四个单独的文档保存：①封面页（无页码）；②致谢、常中英文摘要（小写罗马数字）；③目录（无页码）；④正文（阿拉伯数字）。
论文打印用A4纸；打印份数：4份。
